I)
Racism
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| Figure 01: A Poster Depicting well-known Acts or Forms of Racism |
Racism is a great dividing concept
that is seen across the globe as minorities fight for equality against this
deep rooted cultural and historical theme. It is a way of thinking that has
lead to many atrocities and civil strife within societies throughout history. Figure 01 depicts some of the most well known acts of racism.
The European Commission of Racism and
Intolerance (ECRI) published in a 2004 report that “‘racism’ shall mean the
belief that a ground such as ‘race’, colour, language, religion, nationality or
national or ethnic origin justifies contempt for a person or a group of
persons, or the notion of superiority of a person or a group of persons.” (Kellock,
2004)
The ECRI also explains that their use
of the word ‘race’ was used to accommodate persons who are “generally and
erroneously perceived to ‘another race’ so that they will not be excluded from
the protection provided by the legislation. (Kellock, 2004)
Sources:
Kellock, John. “International Action against Racism Xenophobia, Anti-Semitism and Intolerance in the OSCE Region” A Comparative Study (2004): 11.
For the Poster:
Hitler - http://dmacc5022.files.wordpress.com/2010/11/adolf_hitler_01.jpg
Holocaust - http://caveswiki.wikispaces.com/file/view/holocaust.jpg/68004277/holocaust.jpg
Slave Trade
(top) - http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Slave_Auction_Ad.jpg/220px-Slave_Auction_Ad.jpg
Slave Trade (bottom) - http://www.socialistworker.co.uk/chimage.php?image=2007/2043/slaves_capture.jpg
Apartheid (top) - http://suedafrika.net/Medaia/Toilets.jpg
Apartheid (bottom) - http://www-cs-students.stanford.edu/~cale/cs201/pictures/crowd.jpg
II) AN INTRODUCTION TO BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA
a) Geography
TABLE SHOWING A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF SOME ASPECTS OF BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA
b) A Brief History of Bosnia-Herzegovina
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| Figure 02: A Map of Yugoslavia Depicting its 6 Member States Source: http://images.nationmaster.com/images/motw /europe/former_yugoslavia.jpg |
Bosnia-Herzegovina is a former Soviet State of
Yugoslavia. Yugoslavia was created after WWI from a federation of Balkan
countries so as to avoid any Balkan wars that ignited WWII. (Ontheissue.org) Refer to Figure 02.
Despite being part of a federation of
countries, Bosnia-Herzegovina had autonomous legal status like Puerto Rico
within the US. The same applied to much for the countries within Yugoslavia.
(Ontheissue.org)
Yugoslavia was led by the Communist leader
Marshal Tito since WWII. (Infoplease) He kept the Federation of Republic States together and
kept the ethnic problems in check due to his authoritarian nature. (Ontheissue.org)
Following his death in 1980 and the collapse of
the Soviet Union in 1989, the six states dissolved Yugoslavia seeking more
Independence. (Ontheissue.org)
In December, 1991, Bosnia-Herzegovina declared
Independence and sought recognition by the European Union. In 1992, a
referendum was carried out regarding whether to become Independent or not.
Bosnian voters chose Independence and President Alija Izetbegovic declared the
nation an independent state. (Infoplease)
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| Figure 03: This is a Newspaper Article Source: http://bosniagenocide.files.wordpress.com/2011/03/history -of-bosnia-herzegovina-by-mustafa-ceric.jpg |
The Civil War was triggered by the fact that
the other ethnic group considerations were excluded from the Referendum. Both
the Croatian and Serbia Presidents planned to partition Bosnia between
themselves. The Serbian minority and the Serbian-Yugoslav army took the
offensive and laid siege, especially on Sarajevo. Figure 03 depicts a headline.
By the end of Aug. 1992, rebel Bosnian Serbs had conquered over 60% of Bosnia. The war did not begin to wane until NATO stepped in, bombing Serb positions in Bosnia in Aug. and Sept. 1995. U.S.-sponsored peace talks in Dayton, Ohio, led to an agreement in 1995 that called for a Muslim-Croat federation and a Serb entity within the larger federation of Bosnia. (Infoplease)
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| Figure 04: A Burning Building in Sarajevo and Soldiers Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia /commons/5/58/Bosnian_war_header.no.png |
c) Present Day Bosnia-Herzegovina
Bosnia-Herzegovina is recovering from the war
politically and socially with aims to become a part of the UN. It recently burrowed
405 million euro from the IMF to implement policies effectively in its economy.
Sources:
ontheissues.org. “Background on Kosovo” Last modified November
20, 2012. http://www.ontheissues.org/Background_Kosovo.htm
Infoplease. “Bosnia Herzegovina” Last modified November 20
2012 http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0107349.html?pageno=1
III) SOCIAL ASPECTS OF BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA
a)
Racism and the Civil War
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| Figure 05: Grave digging during the Civil War Source: http://www.toptenz.net/wp-content/uploads/ 2011/06/Bosnian-Civil-War.jpg |
The Civil War in Bosnia-Herzegovina resulted in its break-away from the former Yugoslavian Republic. Genocide was characterized by concentration camps, mass murders, torture and a Serb policy of raping Muslim women. There was also “ethnic cleansing” of Muslims in Bosnia by Serb military and police. The casualties approximated at 250,000 civilian deaths. Figure 05 gives a glimpse into the death toll.
This led to an outflow of large groups of Bosnians
along with other refugees migrating to other nations. According to the 1991
census, Bosnia and Herzegovina had a population of 4,377,000, whilst in 1996,
the UNHCR unofficial census showed a decrease to 3,920,000. Large population
migrations during wars in the 1990s have caused demographic shifts in the
country.
The Civil War despite having ended many years
ago, tensions are still high between the ethnic groups of Bosnia-Herzegovina.
b)
Religious Structure
Bosnia-Herzegovina is characterized by a rich
history of settlement and was first settled by Slavic people. It was under the
influence of the Ottoman Empire from the 15th to the 19th
Century. It was at that time, Islam spread nationally changing society and culture.
This created a native Slavic Muslim community.(globalEDGE)
Catholicism and the Catholic Church did not
have a strong foothold in Bosnia-Herzegovina. Historically, there has always
been a rivalry between Christianity and Islam. Islam held the advantage of
being more popular and eventually the Bosnian Christian Communities disappeared
altogether at the time.
Figure 06 is a pie chart derived from a Bosnian
State Agency cited by the US Department of State in 2008. It clearly shows that
Muslims and Serbian Orthodox are the dominant religions. This is probably due
to a lack of infrastructure for other religions.
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| Figure 06: A Pie Chart depicting the Distribution of Religion in % in 2008 |
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| Figure 07: Possible Evidence of Bias Towards Christianity and Catholicism Source: http://www.wheregodweeps.org/breaking-news/bosnia-herzegovina-archbishop -of-sarajevo-demands-equal-treatment-for-catholics/ |
Sources:
globalEDGE. “Bosnia and Herzegovina: History” Accessed November 19, 2012. http://globaledge.msu.edu/Countries/Bosnia-and-Herzegovina/HistoryIV) POLITICAL ASPECTS OF BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA
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a) Structure of the Political Systems
Bosnia-Herzegovina consists of two autonomous
countries – the Federation Bosnia and Herzegovina (FBiH) and the Republika
Srpska (RS). FBiH is largely Bosnian and Croat whilst the Republika Srpska is
mainly Serb. (globalEDGE)
A
multi-ethnic society, the Constitutional Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina
recognized Bosniaks, Croats, and Serbs as constituent peoples in July 2000.(globalEDGE) This is also seen in the preamble to the constitution, which limits
“constituent peoples” to these groups.
The Parliamentary Assembly comprises two
chambers, the House of Peoples and the House of Representatives, both of which
have equal numbers of Serbs, Croats and Bosniaks.(globalEDGE) In order for anything to be
passed, at least one-third of each group must agree with the motion. If
two-thirds or more of any particular group dissent, it is invalid.
The Presidency is also shared between the
groups- it consists of a Bosniak, a Serb and a Croat, each elected from their
respective territory. If a member of the Presidency declares a Presidency
Decision against the interest of their territory, and two-thirds of their people
agree, the Decision is prohibited. Appointment of ambassadors and other
international representatives, too, must be evenly shared.
b)
Elections
The October 2010 elections maintained the power
of many of the same ethnically based parties and leaders, with no viable
non-nationalist alternative. However, opinion polls in Bosnia show a general
disgust with Bosnian politicians, their squabbling over government posts,
disproportional privileges and corruption.(thetaworld.net)
This paradox may result from the Dayton system
and election laws favouring ethnically based politics, while reflexive distrust
of the other ethnic groups may linger after the war.
c) Merits and Demerits
Acknowledgement of these groups is beneficial in some ways, as an effort is made to ensure that the government and law are inclusive. Despite these attempts to maintain equality for all, limits remain. Only persons declaring an affiliation are entitled to run for the House of Peoples and the Presidency- so those of another race or mixed race are ineligible.
This was seen in a case where two well-qualified candidates, one Roma and one Jewish, lodged applications against the national court due to their ineligibility for election to the House of Peoples and the Presidency. (
An understanding that central government posts must be rotated among the largest parties representing each of the three largest ethnic groups was flouted by the leading Social Democratic Party, which draws most of its support from the Bosnian community. Like previous governments, the new central government is composed of disparate political forces with incompatible agendas, limiting its effectiveness.
A parliamentary majority in the Bosnian political system also has less significance than in other systems, as representatives of any ethnic group, even if in a minority, can veto any decision that they feel does not accord with their interests. In this way, the uneven weight of different ethnic groups retards political progress.
Sources:
Hayden, Robert. “Serbian Croatian Nationalism in the Yugoslavia Wars” Last accessed November 20, 2012.
globalEDGE. “Bosnia and Herzegovina:
History” Accessed November 19, 2012.
http://globaledge.msu.edu/Countries/Bosnia-and-Herzegovina/History
http://globaledge.msu.edu/Countries/Bosnia-and-Herzegovina/History
ERRC. “Council of Europe Anti-Racism Commission Issues First
Report on Bosnia and Herzegovina” Accessed November 19, 2012. http://www.errc.org/article/council-of-europe-anti-racism-commission-issues-first-report-on-bosnia-and-herzegovina/2305
thetaworld.net. “Bosnia and Herzegovina - A
Racist Country in Need of International Help” Accessed November 19, 2012.
http://www.thetaworld.net/human-rights/bosnia-and-herzegovina/
